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Tools, Test and Measurement I Volume 20
Crimping tool options span virtually any need Populating PCBs: how to choose a soldering iron A DIY power supply unit for all seasons Deep dive into PCB manufacturing techniques: milling
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Editor’s note
Welcome to the DigiKey eMagazine Volume 20 – Tools, Test and Measurement This Volume will cover the essential tools, techniques, and technologies shaping today’s electronics and maker landscapes. Whether you’re a seasoned engineer, a passionate hobbyist, or somewhere in between, this edition has something for you. We begin with a foundational look at spectrum analyzers, exploring what they are and the different types available, followed by a breakdown of high-voltage differential oscilloscope probes – both of which are critical tools for safe and accurate measurements. If you’re assembling or troubleshooting circuits, don’t miss our guide to crimping tool options that fit virtually any need. For the makers and tinkerers, we’re excited to present an introduction to G-code and ten essential commands every 3D printing enthusiast should know. You’ll also find practical advice on choosing the right soldering iron when populating your PCBs, plus a hands-on feature on building ‘A DIY Power Supply Unit for All Seasons’. We will also explore PCB manufacturing techniques, with a spotlight on milling, and share some workspace wisdom with the benefits of using a rack to keep your bench organized and efficient. Lastly, we compare 8-bit vs. 12- bit oscilloscopes, showing how modern 12-bit scopes offer greater resolution and versatility for today’s test and measurement demands. As always, our goal is to empower you with practical knowledge, clear explanations, and tools you can use. Thanks for joining us – let’s keep building, exploring, and pushing boundaries together.
4 Tips for improved mechanical test and validation Sponsored by NI 8 Testing with a professional multi- function OTDR-1500 Sponsored by Jonard Tools 12 Spectrum analyzers: what are they and what are the different types 16 High-voltage differential oscilloscope probes: why you need them 20 Crimping tool options span virtually any need 24 Introduction to GCode and ten essential commands for 3D printing 28 Special feature: retroelectro Steel and steam: the most important tool of the 19th Century 40 Populating PCBs: how to choose a soldering iron 44 A DIY power supply unit for all seasons 48 Deep dive into PCB manufacturing techniques: milling 50 The benefits of using a rack to keep your workbench tidy 54 Fundamentals of 8 versus 12-bit oscilloscopes and how to use modern 12-bit scopes
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Tips for improved mechanical test and validation Written by Electronic Specifier
Figure 1: The NI Ethernet cDAQ-9183 (left) and the NI USB-C cDAQ-9173 (right). Image source: N I
NI C ompactDAQ modular systems offer flexibility and scalability, allowing users to adapt to changing requirements. By expanding test coverage, the systems meet a wide range of application needs across different environments and distances. This article is based on the Ethernet cDAQ-9183 (Figure 1, left) & cDAQ- 9187 (Figure 2, left), and the USB-C cDAQ-9173 (Figure 1, right) & cDAQ- 9177 (Figure 2, right) models of the
CompactDAQ platform, showing the improvements these products provide as well as the features that make them superior enough to choose over similar devices. Cost savings CompactDAQ represented a cost- effective update to NI’s popular USB cDAQ chassis, offering the lowest price in the current catalog
for comparable products. Its modular design allowed users to add or swap modules to adjust the number of channels, sensor types, or resolution as needed. This reduced the need for future purchases and simplified modifications, all while using the same software stack. Users could easily scale their systems with CompactDAQ and the broader NI catalog.
ends and an NI locking USB cable in use. Designed to be both rugged and portable, CompactDAQ works just as well in the field as it does in the lab. Its compact form factor means you can pack it in a suitcase or backpack and take it to a customer site. With shock ratings up to 50g and an operating temperature range from -40 to 70°C, it’s well- suited to harsh locations such as oil and gas fields or heavy industrial environments.
NI CompactDAQ systems can offer cost savings through a combination of factors, including streamlined, portable designs, the ability to digitize data closer to sensors, and the use of sensor-specific modules. This reduces cabling complexity and noise, making them a cost- effective alternative for benchtop measurements and distributed DAQ applications. NI’s affordable and accessible list prices encourage customers to adopt DAQ systems.
Better operating environmental specs CompactDAQ is built for tough environments, with strong specifications for operating temperature, shock, and vibration. You can place it closer to the device under test (DUT) and run a single cable back to your PC – no need for a temperature-controlled lab with HVAC. For example, to meet the shock and vibration specifications of the cDAQ-9173, the system must be panel-mounted on a flat surface, with ferrules affixed to terminal line
CompactDAQ also provides
Figure 2: The NI Ethernet cDAQ-9187 (left) and the NI USB-C cDAQ-9177 (right). Image source: N I
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Tips for improved mechanical test and validation
build a real-time display and log data to Excel or an open binary file. (TDMS) NI also has well- documented APIs for C/C++ and Python with over 50 examples for each language. Future-proof Ethernet cDAQ is built to support modern testing needs with Ethernet connectivity and modular flexibility. For users requiring distributed data acquisition, CompactDAQ supports network synchronization over a single Ethernet cable using time sensitive networking (TSN). TSN allows you to synchronize multiple CompactDAQ systems with precision, ensuring that you accurately correlate measurements from different locations.
A key feature of the system is its three independent analog input timing engines. This enables the creation of up to three separate analog input tasks, each with its own sample rate and configuration. As a result, you can efficiently combine slow-changing signals, such as temperature, with high- speed measurements like vibration or sound. By running these tasks in separate loops or threads within a program, you gain precise timing control and can optimize performance across a diverse set of sensors. Software stack NI provides a comprehensive software stack to support test and measurement applications, designed to maximize productivity and streamline development across a wide range of use cases. Among the most notable we can mention: ■ LabVIEW is a graphical programming environment with unique productivity accelerators for engineers developing test and measurement systems. ■ LabVIEW+ accelerates and automates measurement data insights with modularity/ scalability and ready-to-use test data visualization, processing, and reporting tools. ■ NI has free DAQ/Logging software, making it possible to
Connect to your PC over USB or Ethernet CompactDAQ connects via USB or Ethernet, offering flexible options to fit different environments and applications. USB provides a simple, plug-and-play experience that is ideal for portable, desktop, or stand-alone setups. Ethernet connectivity supports distributed measurements by connecting CompactDAQ to local or enterprise networks, enabling multiple systems to run from a single PC with an extended reach up to 200 meters. Conclusion NI offers a broad portfolio of CompactDAQ modular systems designed to support both lab and field environments in managing complex testing tasks with flexibility and precision. From integrating sensor-specific modules to using snap-in connectors and QR codes for streamlined setup, these solutions help optimize test operations with ease. As measurement and control technologies continue to advance, NI remains well-placed to support evolving requirements, enabling more efficient, adaptable, and sustainable data acquisition platforms.
Flexible platform
detailed specifications needed to calculate absolute accuracy, including offset, gain, noise, temperature drift, and calibration intervals. QR-code The CompactDAQ family includes QR-code links on product for quick access to relevant documentation to help streamline the setup process, transforming into a new experience that allows for improved usability.
For portable setups or systems that undergo frequent reconfiguration, CompactDAQ supports modules with quick connection options. These simplify setup and reduce the time spent on repetitive wiring tasks. Each module includes dedicated circuitry tailored to specific measurements – ranging from analog and digital signals to specialized sensor inputs – allowing CompactDAQ to support a wide variety of applications.
Modular I/O for future expansion
CompactDAQ offers the flexibility to adapt as your testing requirements evolve. Whether you need to add more channels, introduce different types of measurements, or use software in various programming languages, CompactDAQ provides the tools to scale and adjust your system. By combining measurement and control in a single platform, it improves both test capability and overall efficiency.
The modular CompactDAQ I/O system is a rugged hardware platform offering flexibility and scalability to suit a wide range of application needs. It allows you to connect the sensors and electrical signals specific to your requirements, with the freedom to customize the system as needed. Modules can be selected based on current demands and easily added or swapped as testing needs change, making CompactDAQ a versatile choice for evolving test environments.
By combining measurement and control in a single platform, it improves both test capability and overall efficiency.
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Testing with a professional multi-function OTDR-1500 Written by Electronic Specifier
Figure 1: The Jonard Tools OTDR-1500 Image source: Jonard Tools
This professional-grade OTDR offers several key advantages, particularly in environments where precision, reliability, and efficiency are essential. It is a strong choice for those requiring accurate diagnostics and dependable performance in demanding fiber network applications.
This article focuses on the advantages of using a professional- grade optical time domain reflectometer (OTDR) over lower- cost alternatives. For critical or large-scale fiber installations, the initial investment is often offset by reduced downtime, fewer repeat site visits, and increased customer confidence. Jonard Tools ’ Professional Multi- Function OTDR-1500 (Figure 1) is a handheld, all-in-one device designed for evaluating ‘Fiber to the X’ (FTTx) and access network construction and maintenance. It supports key tasks such as identifying fiber breakpoints, measuring cable length, and calculating relative optical power losses. The OTDR-1500 offers improved accuracy in dynamic range, event detection, and attenuation readings – helping engineers diagnose issues in fiber networks with greater confidence.
occur at fixed connectors or fractured fiber ends and appear as peaks in the data. Non-reflective events include descending event points, ascending event points, and non-reflective fiber ends. During data analysis, three types of threshold settings are used: loss analysis threshold, loss passing threshold (which includes joint loss and reflection loss thresholds), and fiber terminal threshold. For example, if the calculated connection loss at an event point exceeds the loss analysis threshold, the event is marked with an asterisk (*); otherwise, it is automatically ignored. Similarly, when the connection loss exceeds the fiber terminal threshold, the event point
is identified as the fiber terminal.
Selecting the high-resolution test option increases the maximum number of sampling points to 256k, improving the instrument’s ability to resolve events occurring within a short distance. Reliable fault detection The OTDR-1500 can detect subtle faults that lower-cost units might miss, including microbends, macrobends, dirty or damaged connectors, and minor loss or reflectance issues such as poor splices or breaks. When using the device, it is essential to keep both the
Higher accuracy and resolution
The OTDR-1500 features a large dynamic range of 32/30dB and supports 256k data sampling points, making it well-suited
for long-distance multi- branch communication
network testing. It enables more accurate detection of closely spaced events such as splices, connectors, or breaks in the fiber, with a minimum sampling resolution of 2.5 cm.
Reflective event points typically
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Testing with a professional multi-function OTDR-1500
1500 is its ability to display results for two wavelengths
LCD that ensures a clear and visible display interface suitable for field techs.
Compliance with industry standards Regulatory compliance is necessary for work that must meet IEC, TIA/EIA, or BICSI certification requirements, and is vital for enterprise networks, data centers, telecom backbones, and government contracts. For example, the safety level of the laser used in this device is: CLASS1 LASER PRODUCT: 21 CFR 1040.10 or CLASS 3A LASER PRODUCT: IEC 60825-1:Ed.2:2001
simultaneously. By selecting the ‘test conditions’ button, users can typically choose to test at both 1310 nm and 1550 nm wavelengths. Having access to both wavelengths is useful, as certain faults are more easily detected at specific wavelengths depending on their nature. The device also generates a graphical representation to help identify faults within the fiber optic cable. The ‘analyze’ button on the screen provides access to this event map, which lists all detected events along the tested fiber. An integrated ‘help’ section guides users through interpreting the graphical data, reducing the chance of misinterpretation. As a high-end device, the OTDR- 1500 is more efficient, reducing time spent on troubleshooting and documentation. It features a rugged design and an intuitive UI, with an advanced anti-reflection
Conclusion
Professional tools such as the OTDR-1500 offer greater durability and reliability, supported by manufacturers with regular firmware updates, straightforward maintenance, and extended technical support. This makes them a sound long-term investment. By delivering higher accuracy and resolution, detecting subtle faults, and producing clear, actionable data, these solutions provide an effective means to optimize fault diagnosis on large-scale fiber installations. As FTTx evaluation continues to develop, Jonard Tools remains well-placed to support access network builders and maintainers in achieving their objectives, enabling smarter, more efficient, and sustainable use of professional-grade OTDRs.
Advanced features
Figure 2: Event Viewer Interface Image source: Jonard Tools
When set to Automatic test mode, the OTDR-1500 adjusts its settings automatically to test the connected fiber link. Once the test is complete, the device performs curve analysis and marks event points based on the configured loss analysis threshold. The event list then appears in the main operation window for easy review.
instrument’s optical output connector and the end face of the fiber under test clean. Contamination from substances such as ointment or other pollutants can cause measurement errors and, in severe cases, prevent the device from testing the optical fiber altogether. Detailed and interpretable traces This professional-grade tool provides clear, actionable data that can be easily analyzed and documented (Figure 2), including built-in analysis software or advanced PC software compatibility. Some of the events represented in a trace are: ■ Distance: Measured along the horizontal axis, it shows the location of events within the
fiber. Usually this is from the event point to the reference origin. ■ Amplitude: Measured along the vertical axis, it shows the intensity of the reflected light, indicating the amount of signal loss at each point. ■ Splices: These appear as peaks due to signal reflection. Higher peaks indicate poor quality splices.
■ Connectors: These are similar to splices but generally include smaller peaks. ■ Bends: These can cause gradual dips in the trace, with the severity depending upon the bend angle. ■ Breaks: These show up as sudden drops in the trace, indicating complete signal loss.
A distinctive feature of the OTDR-
A distinctive feature of the OTDR-1500 is its ability to display results for two wavelengths simultaneously. By selecting the ‘test conditions’ button, users can typically choose to test at both 1310 nm and 1550 nm wavelengths.
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spectrum analyzer looks just like an oscilloscope except with more features and graphics. However, while both an oscilloscope and a spectrum analyzer display a signal’s amplitude on the vertical axis, the difference between them is what’s shown on the horizontal axis; an oscilloscope displays time, whereas the spectrum analyzer shows frequency. Figure 1 shows multiple frequency measurements being displayed on Rigol’s DSA815- TG Spectrum Analyzer. According to Keysight Technologies, a spectrum analyzer “measures the magnitude of an input signal versus frequency within the full frequency range of the instrument. Its primary use is to measure the power of the spectrum of known and unknown signals.” [2] In other words, a spectrum
Are you an electrical engineer…? Have you ever used a spectrum analyzer? Most (and hopefully all!) electrical engineers – and perhaps many engineers from disciplines other than electrical – know what an oscilloscope is and have used one. I imagine the oscilloscope was introduced to the majority of electrical engineers during their freshman year of college. However, when dealing with spectrum analyzers, some practicing electrical engineers might not know what one is, let alone have ever used one.
What is a spectrum analyzer?
To many electrical engineers, a
Figure 1: Spectrum analyzers display frequency measurements on the horizontal axis. Image source: Rigol Technologies
Spectrum analyzers: what are they and what are the different types
Written by Nick Davis
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Spectrum analyzers
Benchtop models typically outperform their handheld counterparts but can carry a higher price tag.
analyzer allows users to “analyze a spectrum,” where a spectrum is defined as a collection of sine waves combined to produce a time- domain signal. As an example, let’s observe a signal on an oscilloscope (Figure 2). While this signal is obviously not a pure sinusoidal waveform, a spectrum analyzer determines each of the individual sinusoidal waveforms that make up this signal. And after the spectrum analyzer has identified these waveforms, it plots the amplitude versus frequency of each individual waveform. As you can see in Figure 3, the signal from Figure 2 is made up of only two sinusoidal waveforms. Types of spectrum analyzers: technology types and form factors There are two main categories of spectrum analyzers: swept-tuned
analyzers are simply those (including some benchtop versions) that can be taken into the field thanks to their battery packs.
Unlike swept-tuned spectrum analyzers, real-time spectrum analyzers can evaluate all frequencies simultaneously. A real-time spectrum analyzer works by first acquiring data in the time domain and then converting that data into the frequency domain by use of the fast Fourier transform (FFT). Spectrum analyzers come in a variety of form factors, including benchtop (Figure 4), handheld (Figure 5), and portable. Benchtop models typically outperform their handheld counterparts but can carry a higher price tag. Handheld spectrum analyzers are both less expensive and smaller, but they offer only a subset capability relative to benchtop analyzers. Portable
Conclusion
While all (we hope!) electrical engineers know what an
Figure 5: Seeed Technology’s RF Explorer Model 2.4G is a 2.35 to 2.55GHz Handheld Spectrum Analyzer. Image source: Seeed Technology However, just like oscilloscopes, various spectrum analyzer types are available depending on one’s needs and budget.
oscilloscope is and how to use one, it can be surmised that only some electrical engineers have ever used a spectrum analyzer. Although oscilloscopes and some spectrum analyzers (the benchtop versions) may look similar in both form factor and display, they are quite different; a spectrum analyzer presents its acquired data in an amplitude-versus-frequency fashion, whereas an oscilloscope displays its information in an amplitude-versus-time method.
Figure 2: A signal displayed on an oscilloscope Image source: Agilent Technologies [3]
analyzers and real-time analyzers, also referred to as real-time spectrum analyzers, or RTSA. Both types, which have been used for many years, display amplitude on the vertical axis and frequency on the horizontal axis, but how they
go about “analyzing a spectrum” is what distinguishes them. Given that a swept-tuned spectrum analyzer is “nothing more than a frequency-selective voltmeter with a frequency range that’s tuned (swept) automatically,”[4] it’s not at all surprising to realize that these traditional types of analyzers “descended from radio receivers.”[4] And because swept- tuned spectrum analyzers “cannot evaluate all frequencies in a given span simultaneously,”[4] they are primarily used for measuring steady-state or repetitive signals. These analyzers have successfully served the compliance engineering community (think pre-compliance testing and EMC/EMI testing) for several decades.
References
1. Rigol Technologies, “ DSA800 Spectrum Analyzer Datasheet” (page 3) 2. Keysight Technologies, “What is a Spectrum Analyzer?” 3. Agilent Technologies, “Agilent Spectrum Analysis Basics” (pages 4-5)
4. Keysight Technologies,
“Different Types of Analyzers”
5. Teledyne LeCroy, “T3SA3100/ T3SA3200 Data Sheet” (page 2)
Figure 3: Relationship between a time domain signal (of which is displayed on an oscilloscope) and frequency domain signals (of which are displayed on spectrum analyzers) Image source: Agilent Technologies [3]
Figure 4: Teledyne LeCroy’s T3SA3200 Benchtop Spectrum Analyzer offers a frequency range from 9kHz to 3.2GHz. Image source: Teledyne LeCroy [5]
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When it comes to taking measurements, modern power conversion devices using switching techniques require special handling, including the need for differential probes. This is because, unlike their analog predecessors, they don’t employ transformers to reduce the line voltage. Instead, they use the rectified line voltage as the DC bus source (Figure 1). This topology has interesting implications with respect to grounding and differential signals. In the configuration of Figure 1, the circuit full-wave rectifies the AC line. For a 120rms AC line, the peak-to-peak voltage is 340 VAC. The full-wave-rectified voltage across the capacitor is 170 volts DC. A 240 volt line would double those numbers. This is used as the DC source for the switched-mode voltage regulator. The power switches are configured in a half-bridge topology, with upper and lower switches alternately connected to the output. The voltage regulator (not shown) generates pulse width modulated (PWM) signals which regulate the output voltage by driving the gate- to-source voltage of the MOSFETs. Why you need differential probes Looking at Figure 1, there are some things to note. First, no point in the circuit is referenced to ground. The input line has a hot and a neutral wire. The neutral is ground
Figure 1: Shown is a functional block diagram of a switched-mode power converter for full-wave rectification of the line voltage to generate a DC bus voltage. Image source: Teledyne LeCroy
This presents another problem for a ground-referenced oscilloscope measurement. The solution to this measurement problem is to use a differential probe. Given the voltages encountered – up to 680 volts – it will have to be a high-voltage differential probe (Figure 2). A differential probe measures the difference between the inputs. High-voltage differential probes include attenuators and overload protection on each input. Typical attenuation values are in the range
referenced at its source and may be several volts off ground before reaching the powered device. The voltages in the power converter are essentially floating. Attempting to make a voltage measurement with an oscilloscope using a common passive probe requires connecting the oscilloscope ground somewhere. Connecting a ground lead to any point in this circuit could cause problems. The second thing to note is that the upper MOSFET voltages are riding on the lower MOSFET’s drain voltage. This is switching between zero volts and the DC bus voltage.
High-voltage differential oscilloscope probes: why you need them
Figure 2: Shown is the functional block diagram of a high-voltage differential probe which does not require a ground connection as it measures the voltage difference between the + and – probe inputs. Image source: Art Pini
Written by Art Pini
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High-voltage differential oscilloscope probes
series. All of these probes are well- matched to switched-mode power converter measurements requiring ground isolation. They are fully integrated into the Teledyne LeCroy oscilloscope operating system and are automatically sensed and scaled for accurate measurements.
of 50:1 to 2000:1. This gives high- voltage differential probes an input voltage range from 1500 to 7000 volts. The device being measured is modeled as a differential source consisting of two differential sources, a positive component (V P ) and a negative component (V N ), as well as a common-mode component (V COM ). The common- mode component is shared with both the + and – inputs. The + input sees V P + V COM while the – input sees V COM - V N . The probe, ideally, measures the difference between these input voltages or V P +V N , eliminating the V COM term. Real- life differential probes attenuate the common-mode voltage but do not eliminate it completely. The differential probe’s common- mode rejection ratio (CMMR), the ratio of the attenuated common mode signal to its unattenuated amplitude expressed in decibels (dB), indicates the effectiveness of
means that the 170 volt common- mode signals will be attenuated by better than 65dB. The attenuated common-mode signal would have an amplitude of about 95 millivolts (mV). Since the gate-to- source voltage is on the order of 4 to 12 volts, the common-mode interference will have very little effect on the measurement. For higher voltages such as those associated with 1500 volt DC solar photovoltaic (PV) inverter measurements, I’d recommend the HVD3206A . It has a maximum differential voltage rating of 2000 volts (DC plus peak AC) and has the same bandwidth and CMRR as the HVD3106A-NOACC probe. Finally, for large three-phase machines and their controllers, the HVD3605A with its maximum voltage input of 7000 volts (DC plus peak AC), is the high-voltage differential probe I’d recommend. The high voltage range is the result of the 200:1 or 2000:1 attenuator available in this probe. It has a CMRR of 85dB at 60Hz, 70dB at 10 kilohertz (kHz), and 64dB at 1MHz, and an offset range of 6000 volts. The HVD3000A series probes all have gain accuracies of 1% or better, are available with and without accessories, and with oscilloscope cable lead lengths of 2.25 and 6 meters (m) (Figure 3). Accessory kits vary with the model and include voltage-suitable clips or micro-grabbers.
High-voltage differential probes are useful in situations where there is no ground reference and where the signal to be measured is riding on top of another, high-voltage signal.
Conclusion High-voltage differential probes are useful in situations where there is no ground reference and where the signal to be measured is riding on top of another, high-voltage signal. For these situations, Teledyne LeCroy provides the HVD3000A
the differential probe. This figure of merit is frequency-dependent, generally falling with increasing frequency. How to use a differential probe Let’s look at using a high-voltage differential probe to measure the upper gate to source voltage in a 120 volt input, switched-mode power converter, similar to the one shown in Figure 1. The DC bus voltage will be about 170 volts. The gate-to-source of the upper MOSFET will ride on the switching signal of the lower MOSFET, a PWM signal switching between zero
and 170 volts. The gate-to-source voltage will be on the order of 4 to 12 volts. For this measurement, I recommend a Teledyne LeCroy HVD3106A-NOACC high-voltage differential probe. This 120MHz bandwidth probe has a voltage rating of 1000 volts RMS. Its differential voltage rating is 1500 volts (DC plus peak AC), well matched to even a power converter operating off of 240 volts AC. It has an offset range of 1500 volts, making it easy to vertically expand the measured waveform to see details. The probe has a CMRR of 85dB up to 60 Hertz (Hz) and 65dB at 1 megahertz (MHz). This
Figure 3: Some of the high-voltage differential probe configurations for the HVD3000A series, which are offered with or without accessories and oscilloscope cable lengths up to 6m. Image source: Teledyne LeCroy
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Crimping tool options span virtually any need Written by Pete Bartolik
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Crimping tool options span virtually any need
Someday, perhaps, manually adroit robots will be able to overcome any and every electrical connection challenge for even the most ad hoc application or hit-or-miss prototyping effort. Until then – and probably long after that point – we’ll still often rely on humans wielding manual or powered crimping tools to ensure high-quality connections that defy automation. Automation works best where scale and uniformity can be applied to mass production, justifying the high costs of development, deployment, training, and maintenance. It does not work so well in situations that require flexibility and adaptability, such as prototyping and limited production runs, which can’t promise ROI from investment in automated crimping systems. Field repair and maintenance is another area that is likely to resist automation far into the future. Crimping is invaluable in the solderless joining and termination of conductors. Its roots are said to date back to ancient jewelry making and metalworking. In the modern era, it has had a momentous impact with its adoption across the ever- expanding range of electrical and electronic applications.
Soldering continues to be utilized in electrical engineering, of course, particularly in smaller-scale production runs. But crimping generally is faster and provides reliable, vibration-resistant connections. That’s why it’s been popular across a broad range of automotive, aerospace, consumer electronics, and power applications
The lower cost of many manual crimping tools is an obvious benefit when vendors are unable to justify the price of more advanced options. But powered tools are likely to boost productivity in high- volume productions and improve the quality and consistency of crimps. In either scenario, ease of operation and ergonomics are important to ensure operators achieve the desired crimping results.
Figure 2: Klein Tools’ VDV226-110 tool for stripping and crimping twisted pair wiring. Image source: Klein Tools, Inc.
Figure 4: Molex provides the FA2 mechanical feed crimping applicator for workbench use. Image source: Molex
Figure 6: The 1208199-ND stripping and crimping solution from Phoenix Contact can process up to 1,000 operations per hour. Image source: Phoenix Contact
Selection criteria
Klein Tools also offers Pass-Thru modular crimpers, including the VDV226-110 (Figure 2), for cutting and stripping twisted pair cable and crimping it to its line of RJ45 CAT5E and CAT6 Pass-Thru connectors . For coaxial cables, the ATHT-K3081 (Figure 3) crimp tool kit from Adam Tech includes a rachet crimper with six interchangeable dies, along with a cable cutter and stripper. The toolset comes in a portable storage case and is suitable for cutting and crimping various coaxial cable sizes.
Molex , the manufacturer of connectors and cable assemblies, offers hundreds of crimping tools, ranging from the WM18730-ND basic hand crimper, to high-end mechanical feed applicators such as the FA2 series 900-2157860100- ND (Figure 4). Another vendor with a wide range of crimping tools is Panduit, a global supplier of networking and electrical infrastructure products. Its CT-1701 is a crimp tool with a controlled cycle designed to ensure connections are fully completed
and uniform. At the high end of its product portfolio, the BlackfinÔ CT-2931/STBT (Figure 5) is a battery-powered hydraulic tool that can deliver a force of 12 tons and features a rotating flip-top crimp head. Another high-end option is the Phoenix Contact CF 1000-series 1208199-ND (Figure 6). The AC powered, pneumatic operation machine automates stripping and crimping, processing up to 1,000 operations per hour. Conclusion To sum it up, there is a crimping tool available to suit virtually any specific need. Whether that need is simple or complex, numerous vendors provide tools for a wide variety of crimping applications. This ensures product developers have almost unlimited flexibility in finding the right balance of cost, utility, ergonomics, and productivity to achieve the desired production results.
As always, the needs of the application are the key determinants in selecting the
Crimpers to meet any needs
appropriate crimping tool. But other key factors at play include budget, anticipated ROI, adaptability, and operator productivity. Today, many types of crimping tools are available, most intended for specific applications. They are also available in versions that can be manually operated, powered by battery or AC, utilize hydraulic or pneumatic energy sources, and come in a variety of form factors, from portable to bench-mounted. Costs range from tens of dollars for manual devices to thousands for pneumatic-powered or automated solutions.
It’s impossible to cover all crimping options here, but the following examples illustrate the range of tools available to meet operators’ needs.
Klein Tools offers a popular, versatile ratcheting tool, the
3005CR (Figure 1). Designed for crimping insulated terminals to stranded copper wire, it has three side-entry cavities accommodating the most common wire gauges. The vendor says the rachet ensures a uniform crimp “every time.”
In the modern era, it has had a momentous impact with its adoption across the ever- expanding range of electrical and electronic applications.
Figure 3: Adam Tech’s ATHT-K3081 handy toolkit for coaxial cable cutting, stripping, and crimping coaxial cable. Image source: Adam Tech
Figure 5: Panduit’s hydraulic, battery- operated CT-2931/STBT can deliver 12 tons of force for crimping operations. Image source: Panduit
Figure 1: The 3005CR ratcheting crimp tool. Image source: Klein Tools, Inc.
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This image shows an example GCode program created using Cura.
GCode is one of the oldest programming languages, yet it still plays a crucial role in
This versatility is possible because GCode contains only a set of lines where each line represents a single command, typically composed of an alphanumeric code and parameters. These instructions tell the CNC machine what to perform and are sent to a controller board responsible for interpreting the commands and performing the desired actions. As the example shows, each line must contain exactly one command. However, there may be an additional comment explaining how a line of code functions. Such comments start with a semi-colon character, and the interpreting controller ignores everything following a semi-colon. G-code remains widely used today because of its simplicity, broad compatibility, and extensive support from various manufacturers. The standardized
numerous industrial and desktop manufacturing machines around the world. We’ll cover GCode and delve into ten essential commands you should know to step up your 3D printing game. What is GCode, and why do 3D printers use it? GCode, also known as Gerber or Geometric Code, is a standardized set of commands introduced in the 1950s to control CNC equipment such as drilling, milling, and cutting machines. GCode is very versatile, and aside from its use in instructing industrial CNC devices, it’s also suitable for controlling other machines such as 3D printers, 2D plotters , or even regular inkjet printers you might find in a home office.
Introduction to GCode and ten essential commands for 3D
Image Source: pixabay.com/
printing Written by Maker.io Staff
photos/printer-3d- print-3d-printing- white-2416269/
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Introduction to GCode and ten essential commands for 3D printing
set of commands also ensures that controllers can depend on a consistent framework. At the same time, slicer software – specifically for 3D printing – can confidently generate and send code files to 3D printers, knowing they will be highly compatible. Essential movement-related GCode commands for makers
Issuing G1 commands to the extruder in absolute positioning mode may not be desirable, as it complicates calculations. Often, it’s easier to have the extruder push out 1mm of the filament rather than telling it to advance the filament to a certain length, as would be the case in absolute mode. Therefore, you can instruct the 3D printer to switch to relative extrusion mode using M83 and revert to absolute filament positioning using M82. G92 allows you to set the current position of the 3D printer’s axes, and it’s commonly used to define custom origin points or adjust the coordinates during the print process. G92 is, for example, also helpful in resetting the extruder to enforce the belief that it’s at the origin in absolute positioning mode. When discussing movements, you need to remember that any moving machine will eventually go out of alignment, regardless of how perfectly it was calibrated at one point. The M92 command allows you to set the steps per unit for any 3D printer axis, which helps calibrate the movement control by adjusting the number of steps required for the motors to move a specific distance. You can adjust this number by extruding a specified length of the filament and then measuring the extruded distance using calipers, for example. Then, change the number until the extruded length matches the expected value.
know is G28. This particular command instructs the 3D printer to home its axes, returning the extruder and print bed to their reference positions. Doing so is necessary because the motors can’t remember where they are between prints or when powered off, and issuing a G28 command ensures a consistent starting point for subsequent operations. You can use the command on its own to home all axes or together with the axis to home (e.g., G28 X0 to home only the X-axis).
Using G1, you can instruct the printer to move along one or multiple axes in a linear motion. Parameters control the axis and distance. For example, G1 X100 Y100 instructs the printer to move its X and Y axes 100 units. In addition to axes, G1 can also control the printer’s extruder and feed rate. When the printer is in absolute positioning mode, G1 moves the axes to the specified position, which also applies to the extruder.
GCode, introduced in the 1950s, is a universal programming language used to control CNC equipment and other machines such as 3D printers.
when creating bridges. Blowing on the freshly placed material while bridging a gap may help create a better surface finish and prevent drooping. M106 allows you to control a printer’s fan speed, and M107 lets you turn off the fan. Summary GCode, introduced in the 1950s, is a universal programming language used to control CNC equipment and other machines such as 3D printers. It consists of lines with alphanumeric codes and parameters the device’s controller board interprets. The commands discussed include G28 for homing axes, G1 for linear movement control, M83 for relative extrusion mode, G92 for setting positions, M92 for calibrating steps per unit, M302 for enabling cold extrusion, and M104, M109, M106, and M107 for temperature and fan control. Still have questions about GCode? Visit the 3D Printing area of our TechForum to find more info and ask our experts!
Heating-related GCode commands for 3D printing M302 is an instruction that lets you disable or enable extrusion when the printer’s nozzle is cold. Typically, the 3D printer’s controller doesn’t allow cold extrusion to prevent damaging the extruder mechanism. However, for testing and calibration purposes, you may want to circumvent this safety mechanism by using the M302 command. GCode programs for 3D printing typically contain either M104 or M109 in the first few lines, as these commands set the temperature of the printer’s nozzle. M104 sets the temperature but instructs the printer to immediately continue with the next instruction, while M109 makes the printer wait until its nozzle reaches the target temperature. Controlling a printer’s fan using GCode commands Lastly, some printers have fans that help them cool parts during critical points in the print process, such as
The first command you should
Many CNC machines, such as engravers, 3D printers, mills, and laser cutters, support standard and sometimes modified GCode commands. Image Source: pixabay.com/photos/ engraving-on-metal-milling-details-4047890/
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Steel and steam: the most important tool of the 19th Century Written by David Ray, Cyber City Circuits
Dan Stillson
“The Roanoke was a frigate used for diplomatic missions before the Civil War.”
Industrial ingenuity In the second half of the nineteenth century, America was headlong into a technological revolution powered by steel, steam, and a new spirit of industrial ingenuity. Among the many mechanical breakthroughs of the era, few tools would prove as vital – and as enduring – as the Stillson wrench. Born from the challenges of maintaining steamships under fire and forged in the workshops of Boston, the Stillson wrench transformed pipe fitting forever. This story follows the remarkable journey of Daniel Stillson, a Civil War sailor turned inventor, and the creation of a tool so influential that it earned its place alongside the greatest innovations of all time. Daniel Stillson – civil war sailor Daniel Stillson was born in Durham, New Hampshire, in 1826. He
In 1861, at the age of 35, Stillson enlisted in the Union Navy against the Confederates. History shows that he manned several different ships during his enlistment. He started on the steamship R.B. Forbes, but soon after, the ship was ran aground and wrecked after a devastating windstorm on February 25, 1862. Everyone survived and was transferred to other ships.
started his career as a machinist/ mechanic at the Charlestown Navy Yard (Now the Boston Navy Yard). He became very skilled in working on steam engines. The late 1850s to the late 1870s was the golden age for steam-based technology. Steam dominated the industry until the 1890s when Frank J Sprague started mass-producing his electric traction motors.
“The Battle of Hampton Roads, fought in March 1862, marked the first clash between ironclad warships.”
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Stillson was reassigned to the Roanoke, which was sitting on the sideline, in viewing distance of the ‘Battle of Hampton Roads’ and the Battle of the Monitor and the Merrimack. Soon after that, he was moved to another ship, the Somerset, patrolling the area surrounding Cuba, where he participated in the blockade and capture of Cedar Key, Florida. By August of his first year of service, he had become very ill. Records don’t show what the illness that affected Stillson, but it may have been typhoid fever or dysentery. With this, he resigned from the US Navy to convalesce. Blockade runners There was much action in the regions surrounding the Gulf, Louisiana, Florida, and Mobile, Alabama, which drew in the Union Navy. They regularly engaged in battles with blockade runners. Blockade runners were designed to move very quickly and stealthily. The British traded with the Confederates, supplying weapons, ammunition, clothing, cannons, etc., in exchange for resources like tobacco and cotton. Cutting off this trade route was key to the Union’s strategy. Going into the Civil War, the Navy was split and ill- prepared on either side. Every effort was made to purchase as many steamships as they could. The USS Santiago de Cuba was initially constructed in Cuba to
and engineer aboard a wooden steamship in the open ocean, constantly under the threat of cannon fire. Each shift brought the risk that a single well-aimed cannonball could rupture the coal bunkers or ignite the boiler fires, turning the vessel into an uncontrollable inferno. Under relentless stress, crews worked deep within the ship’s belly – hot, cramped, often in smoky candlelight or utter darkness. Split- second decisions and constant vigilance were not optional; they were survival skills. Picture enduring these conditions not for hours but for weeks at a time, with little hope of rescue if disaster struck. He had just witnessed the Battle of the Monitor and Merrimack a year earlier and now he is boarding British privateer ships. A lesser man would let anxiety and fear govern his abilities, but not Daniel Stillson.
Walworth Manufacturing Company Walworth Manufacturing Company was founded in Boston, Massachusetts, in 1842 by James Jones Walworth and Joseph Nason. At that time, steam heating systems represented cutting-edge technology. Joseph Nason traveled to Great Britain to review this new technology and brought some of it back with him. Applying what he learned abroad, J.J. Walworth and Nason established Walworth Manufacturing Co. specifically to sell steam systems. The company initially focused on manufacturing iron pipes for household heating. Retro Electro fun fact: in 1853, Walworth Manufacturing installed the White House’s first steam heating system during President Pierce’s administration.
“The Santiago de Cuba was a converted trade ship. The ship was very fast and was best suited for blockade duty.” First Assistant Engineer on the ship, and Stillson worked directly under him. In June 1863, they captured a British blockade runner named ‘Victory’ after a long chase. The ship broke through the blockade surrounding the port of Wilmington with cargo that included cotton, tobacco, and turpentine, attempting to reach a port in the Gulf, likely Mobile Bay, Alabama. Colonel Green and Stillson boarded the ship and took control of engineering. The vessel was taken to Boston and made fit for Union service. Renamed the USS Queen, it became one of the fastest ships in the Union. Outfitted to serve as a supply ship, it navigated the Gulf while being based in New Orleans, Louisiana. Stillson spent the remainder of his Navy career with Levi Green on the USS Queen.
“The Battle of Hampton Roads, fought in March 1862, marked the first clash between ironclad warships.”
establish trade routes to New York. It was officially launched on April 2, 1861, and the Civil War officially started ten days later, eliminating any hope for proper and safe trade routes to New England. Soon after, it was purchased by the Union Navy and put into service, assigned to blockading duty.
Boarding and commandeering a British vessel After several months of recuperation, Daniel Stillson rejoined the Navy and was assigned to the USS Santiago de Cuba under the command of Commander Robert H Wyman. Here he met Colonel Levi Green, who was the
Now, back to the story.
Suggested thought exercise
“J.J. Walworth and Joseph Nason founded Walworth Manufacturing.”
Imagine the life of a fireman
“Pictures of the USS Queen are unavailable, but here is a description of the ship.”
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installation, maintenance job, or repair involving pipes took longer and cost more labor
were familiar and friendly with each other. There is a chance that he had already worked for Walworth before the war. The records of this time are sparse, but it sounds like it was a strong, connected ship-building community at the time. Challenges with early pipe wrenches This era marked the golden age of steam systems. While the practical electric motor was just around the corner, steam was the peak technology driving the Industrial Revolution during this time. Before the invention of the Stillson wrench in 1869, working with pipes was an arduous and frustrating task. The tools available were not designed
“The 1865 patent for an early Stillson Wrench attempt.”
Post-war career Following the war, Stillson resigned from the Navy and joined the team at Walworth Manufacturing. Soon after he filed a patent for a new pipe wrench in 1865. This particular wrench was made obsolete soon after, but it was the first to be adjustable with a self-tightening bite action, making it easy to use on rounded steam pipes. The patent was filed so soon after the war, it is easy to imagine that he was crafting and perfecting this tool, while servicing the steam engine and boiler on the USS Queen. The legend of the Stillson wrench The lack of a reliable, one-handed pipe tool also slowed America’s expansion of steam heating systems, plumbing infrastructure, and industrial piping. Every Writer’s note: information about Levi Green is hard to find, and some inaccuracies may exist. Many sources state that Levi Green left the Navy ahead of Stillson and assisted Stillson in getting a job with him at Walworth Manufacturing Company, but the Navy’s own records indicate that Green did not leave the Navy until 1869. One thing is sure: They worked together, with Green as the Chief Engineer, at Walworth Manufacturing Co. in 1869.
before the wrench’s release. The need for a better solution was obvious to anyone working with steam or water systems. Yet no commercially available wrench fully solved the problem until Stillson created a pipe wrench with serrated jaws, an adjustable threaded nut, and a self-tightening pivoting head that bit into the pipe harder the more torque was applied. As a career expert steam pipe worker, he had a level of experience with his hand tools that most men will never have. Consider the smoke-filled boiler rooms in the wooden steamships in the middle of the night, with nothing but your hands and your tools. These
rounding off and damaging the pipe. The difficulty was compounded in industrial settings such as steamships, factories, and railroad yards. Pipes were often rusted, oily, or hot. Working conditions were cramped, with minimal lighting and limited access to fittings. Maintaining two-handed pressure on a traditional wrench was nearly impossible in these environments. A pipe that slipped out of a wrench’s jaws could result in delays, injuries, or catastrophic leaks in steam systems – a genuine hazard in the high-pressure world of 19th-century industry. The sudden release of super-heated steam often resulted in lethal burn injuries to workers and bystanders.
for gripping round, smooth surfaces under heavy torque.
Instead, craftsmen had to make do with general-purpose wrenches like monkey wrenches or adjustable spanners – tools suited for flat- sided fasteners, not cylindrical pipes. Monkey wrenches, first patented in the 1840s by Loring Coes, were adjustable and sturdy, but their smooth jaws had little ability to grip the slick, round surfaces of steam pipes or gas fittings. Mechanics and plumbers often had to apply enormous hand strength to maintain pressure between the wrench jaws and the pipe while turning. If the user’s grip slipped even slightly, the wrench would lose purchase, spinning freely or worse,
“Wrenches came in all shapes and sizes, many trying to solve the same problem that the Stillson Wrench solved.”
However, their expertise quickly expanded to include the installation of boilers, hot water, and steam heating systems in buildings, ships, and textile mills, making them the largest manufacturer of steam systems in the New World. The Walworth Manufacturing Company collaborated with the US Navy in Boston during the mid- 19th Century, particularly through
its work on steam systems and fittings. Being based in Boston was ideal for the Navy since the Charleston Navy Yard was where much of the pre-war Navy was constructed. Since Stillson already had an established career at the Charleston Navy Yard before the war, it is reasonable to assume that he and members of the team at Walworth Manufacturing Co.
“The 1970 Patent for the Stillson Wrench”
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