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Robotics I Volume 22
Building a flexible design for today’s robotic applications Why and how to use a component-based distributed power architecture for robotics Unlocking the potential of 48 V systems with Allegro Solutions How to achieve fast, precise, and low power position sensing for real- time control
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Editor’s note
Welcome to the DigiKey eMagazine Volume 22 – Robotics. In this issue, we explore the technologies and engineering breakthroughs powering the next generation of robotic systems across industrial, service, and collaborative environments. We begin with a look at the Agilex 3 product family from Altera, highlighting how its high-performance processing and adaptability are helping developers build smarter, faster robotics solutions. Samtec walks us through their connectivity innovations that address the unique challenges in robotic and industrial systems, where precision and reliability are non-negotiable. STMicroelectronics dives into strategies for building flexible robotic designs, essential for developers facing constantly shifting performance demands. TE Connectivity follows with an exploration of smart navigation, safety, and control in service robotics – key factors in ensuring both effectiveness and trust in human-robot interactions. In the power domain, we examine component-based distributed power architectures that bring scalability and efficiency to robotics. As safety grows increasingly critical in collaborative environments, we offer practical guidance on selecting and integrating multi-dimensional safety systems to protect workers while enabling seamless co- existence with cobots. Finally, we delve into the core of motion and control with a detailed look at fast, precise, and low-power position sensing, a technology at the heart of responsive and intelligent robotic behavior. Whether you’re designing robotic platforms, specifying components, or architecting systems for the future, we hope this volume offers valuable insights and inspiration. The world of robotics is not just about machines – it’s about building intelligent, collaborative systems that move our industries, and our lives, forward.
Agilex 3 FPGAs & SoCs: engineering solutions for power-conscious, cost- effective embedded systems Sponsored by Altera
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8 Industrial and robotic interconnects: Samtec’s solutions for harsh environment connectivity Sponsored by Samtec 12 Building a flexible design for today’s robotic applications Sponsored by STMicroelectronics 16 Industrial service robotics: smart navigation, safety and control with TE Connectivity’s connector solutions Sponsored by TE Connectivity
20 Special feature: retroelectro
Engineering silence: the telephone and the negative feedback amplifier
30 Unlocking the potential of 48 V systems with Allegro Solutions 3 6 Smart GNSS antennas: a better way to design positioning, navigation and timing into your project 40 Why and how to use a component- based distributed power architecture for robotics 46 How to select and integrate multi- dimensional safety systems to protect workers from cobots 52 How to achieve fast, precise, and low power position sensing for real-time control
Sponsored content provided by:
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Agilex 3 FPGAs & SoCs: engineering solutions for power- conscious, cost-effective embedded systems
needed for both thermal and battery constraints. The operational speed reflects engineering choices that balance processing power with energy usage, enabling sophisticated algorithm implementation within practical power limitations.
AI processing integration The Agilex 3’s design embeds AI Tensor Blocks throughout the FPGA fabric, establishing a processing environment capable of handling standard digital signal processing as well as AI computations. These blocks can switch between DSP and Tensor operations, delivering a key adaptability that removes the need for additional acceleration hardware. The AI Tensor Blocks can perform matrix calculations efficiently, executing dot products within single clock cycles using various data formats such as fixed-point, INT8, FP16, FP19, FP32, BFLOAT16, and INT9. Combined with up to 368 configurable 18 x 19 multipliers, this architecture achieves a peak theoretical throughput of 2.54 TOPS for INT8 processing. This processing density simplifies system design and reduces component costs by incorporating specialized capabilities that would otherwise require additional hardware. It also benefits edge implementations requiring simultaneous real-time sensor processing or intelligent analysis. The ‘frictionless’ switching between signal processing and ML functions in one device enables design methodologies that would be challenging with separate processing components.
Image source: Altera
Embedded system designs require solutions that balance high performance with power and cost constraints. Unfortunately, standard FPGA architectures often require designers to compromise between power efficiency and computational capability. Altera’s Agilex 3 FPGA and SoC family addresses these challenges with purpose-built features that are optimized for embedded, edge, and industrial applications. They introduce targeted innovations with devices spanning from 25,000 to 135,000 logic elements while maintaining architectural benefits across the full range. The integration of AI acceleration, advanced security features, and processing capabilities, results in a platform suited for applications where every milliwatt and cost consideration matters. Advanced HyperFlex foundation Agilex 3 leverages a HyperFlex FPGA architecture, achieving substantial performance
gains through fundamental improvements in timing management and routing effectiveness. This foundation delivers fabric performance improvements up to 1.9 times, while reducing total power consumption by up to 38% compared to earlier solutions. These improvements result from core architectural changes that minimize critical path latencies and streamline routing complexity. Agilex 3 devices demonstrate exceptional integration capabilities, supporting up to 135,000 logic elements within packages measuring 12 mm x 12 mm. Their variable pitch BGA packaging strategy preserves high I/O density while conforming to conventional PCB design standards, facilitating easy deployment in space- constrained applications without requiring specialized production techniques. With fabric operation reaching 345 MHz, the Agilex 3 series delivers exceptional computational performance for real-time processing while preserving the power efficiency
Advanced connectivity architecture Agilex 3 devices offer robust communication capabilities via built-in transceivers operating at speeds up to 12.5 Gbps across four channels. These transceivers feature hardened PCIe 3.0 and 10 Gigabit Ethernet IP blocks, providing direct high- speed communication without external interface hardware. The consolidation reduces system complexity while maintaining reliable data transmission for applications including industrial automation, video processing, and measurement instrumentation. Memory interfacing uses LPDDR4 implementation which supports transfer rates up to 2,133 Mbps, offering sufficient bandwidth for embedded implementations while emphasizing power usage. This memory selection shows an emphasis on power-sensitive applications where battery performance and thermal control
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Agilex 3 FPGAs & SoCs: engineering solutions for power-conscious, cost-effective embedded systems
Tight fabric coupling allows flexible workload distribution, allowing processor-intensive operations to shift between software and hardware execution based on immediate performance needs.
applications. This integration facilitates coordination between software and hardware processing components which is usually challenging using separate devices connected via external links.
The Agilex 3 processor implementation provides
outweigh maximum memory throughput. For imaging and display implementations, MIPI D-PHY v2.1 offers direct sensor and display connectivity at speeds reaching 2.5 Gbps per lane across fourteen lanes. This functionality serves medical imaging, surveillance, and consumer electronics processing of high-resolution visual data. Integrated MIPI interfaces remove external bridge requirements, decreasing costs and enhancing signal quality through reduced interconnect distances. The adaptable I/O design also incorporates 1.25 Gbps LVDS and
additional high-speed differential interfaces for direct industrial sensor/communication system connections. This flexibility accommodates designs requiring diverse external component interfacing without extra conversion hardware.
computing capacity for real- time operating environments, communication protocols, and application software while maintaining power efficiency required for embedded deployments. Tight fabric coupling allows flexible workload distribution, allowing processor- intensive operations to shift between software and hardware execution based on immediate performance needs. Comprehensive power control features ensure precise device power management through independent power and clock domains. Engineers can tune power consumption according to immediate processing demands, which is crucial for battery- operated applications where efficiency directly influences operational duration and system dependability. Security and management systems The Agilex 3 series includes a Secure Device Manager (SDM) with extensive security capabilities that cater to increased security
Embedded processing architecture
demands in embedded and edge computing environments. Authenticated boot features ensure that only verified software and FPGA configurations load during system startup, which is essential for industrial control, medical equipment, and infrastructure applications where unauthorized code poses serious hazards. Management capabilities also include thorough monitoring and control features supporting system diagnostics and maintenance planning. The SDM also offers access to temperature measurement, voltage monitoring, and additional diagnostic functions for health assessment and maintenance scheduling. These capabilities can be beneficial for industrial deployments where unexpected downtime creates
substantial operational and economic consequences.
product management and cost optimization.
The integrated processing system features dual-core Arm Cortex-A55 processors running at frequencies up to 800 MHz, establishing linked hardware-software operations optimized for mixed computing
Growth and migration planning The Agilex 3 series provides a platform for expandable system development through design compatibility with enhanced Agilex 5 devices. This compatibility allows engineers to initiate development with cost-effective Agilex 3 devices, then subsequently transition to enhanced performance solutions as needs develop, without major design modifications. Package compatibility across the logic density spectrum (25,000 to 135,000 logic elements) also supports board designs accommodating various device options, delivering flexibility for
Conclusion
Agilex 3 FPGA and SoCs achieve high performance without sacrificing power efficiency or cost effectiveness. Their Hyperflex architecture delivers performance gains and reduces the power consumption in a wide range of embedded designs. Additionally, the integration of AI Tensor Blocks with DSP capabilities, hardened high-speed connectivity, and dual processors creates a unified platform that eliminates the need for multiple discrete components. To find an Agilex 3 product your next design, visit Agilex 3 on DigiKey.
Image source: Altera
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For applications requiring ingress protection, AccliMate sealed connectors meet IP67 and IP68 ratings for dust and water protection
An industrial robot on a factory floor. Image source: Adobe Stock
The smooth contact surface minimizes insertion force and provides a reliable electrical connection for precise systems and sensitive sensor interfaces. Their micro-slot tail design also enhances solder joint strength, addressing mechanical stress that can accumulate over extended operational cycles. For applications requiring even higher performance, Samtec’s Edge Rate contact system balances electrical performance with higher mechanical robustness. These contacts feature broad-milled surfaces rather than standard stamped edges to reduce crosstalk and improve signal integrity at data rates of 56 Gbps PAM4 (28 Gbps NRZ). Similarly, Samtec’s URSA I/O utilizes hyperboloid-type contacts providing four points of electrical contact. This design meets the needs of ultra-rugged environments with improved resistance to shock,
vibration, and corrosion while maintaining low contact resistance.
Image source: Samtec
Environmental resilience through rigorous testing Samtec’s Severe Environment Testing (SET) subjects products to conditions that simulate decades of field exposure, including temperature cycling from -65 to +125°C for up to 500 cycles, mechanical shock testing at 40 G peak acceleration, and random vibration testing at frequency ranges from 5 to 2000 Hz. The Extended Life Product program provides additional testing for long-term deployments through 10-year Mixed Flowing Gas testing that evaluates contact
signal integrity. Samtec’s solutions include rugged board-to-board connectors designed for factory automation systems, as well as flexible cable assemblies suitable for multi-axis robotic joints that operate continuously. Advanced contact technology for extended life Reliability of industrial connectors depends on contact design, and typical solutions often fail under the harsh conditions of industrial environments. To address this issue, Samtec’s Tiger Eye connectors use a multi- finger contact system that offers redundant connection points to increase their life cycle. A 3-finger beryllium copper contact design distributes mechanical stress across multiple contact points, reducing wear and extending operational life beyond 1,000 mating cycles. This contact architecture is ideal for robotic systems where connectors are frequently mated/unmated during maintenance procedures.
Industrial and robotic interconnects: Samtec’s solutions for harsh environment connectivity
Industrial automation and robotics systems operate in environments that can quickly destroy standard electronic connectors. Factory floors, for instance, subject equipment to vibrations, temperature extremes, chemical exposure, and physical abuse that
could cause connection failures within months of deployment. In robotic applications, these issues can be severe as connectors are subjected to millions of motion cycles which can degrade critical electrical pathways over time.
Samtec’s solution to these issues is purpose-engineered connector and cable solutions that address the demands of industrial and robotic applications. Its specialized product families prioritize long-term reliability, environmental resilience, and preserving high-performance
Samtec’s URSA I/O. Image source: Samtec
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Industrial and robotic interconnects: Samtec’s solutions for harsh environment connectivity
resistance stability under corrosive atmospheric conditions. This protocol simulates the effects of industrial pollutants, salt sprays, and other environmental contaminants that can degrade performance over time. For applications requiring ingress protection, AccliMate sealed connectors meet IP67 and IP68 ratings for dust and water protection. These bayonet-sealed circular cable assemblies maintain reliable connectivity in washdown environments and outdoor robotics applications where moisture ingress could quickly cause issues. The sealing systems utilize O-ring designs and environmentally stable materials that resist degradation from UV exposure and chemical cleaning agents.
to function reliably in diverse environmental conditions.
High-speed signal integrity solutions Industrial automation and robotics systems rely on high-bandwidth connectivity for real-time control, sensor fusion, and AI processing. Samtec FireFly optical transceivers
Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) is another frequent concern in industrial environments as high- power machinery can generate significant interference. Samtec’s solutions offer complete shield continuity using 360-degree cable protection to maintain signal integrity, while metal housing construction provides additional isolation for critical control circuits. The URSA series incorporates braided metal jackets specifically designed for applications where electromagnetic interference can compromise system operation.
meet these requirements by delivering data rates up to 28
AccliMate sealed USB Type-C cable assembly plug. Image source: Samtec
Gbps per lane in a compact 0.63 square inch footprint, achieving 265Gbps per square inch density for space-constrained applications. The system’s interchangeable copper and optical capability allows designers to optimize for cost/performance and maintain consistent connector footprints across designs. Samtec’s Eye Speed cable technology achieves ultra-low skew performance with a max. intra-pair skew of 3.5 picoseconds per meter for standard versions, and 1.75 picoseconds per meter for Hyper Low Skew variants. This precision is essential in applications requiring synchronization between servo motors or sensor arrays, as even slight timing variations can degrade system performance or cause instability. Samtec meets high-density interconnect requirements through its NovaRay micro rugged backplane systems that accommodate up to 128 differential pairs in a single connector while supporting 128 Gbps PAM4 performance. The fully shielded differential pair
design helps to minimize crosstalk and is applicable in blind-mate applications in industrial equipment where precise connector alignment can be challenging. Addressing robotic motion and power requirements Robotic systems have specialized connectivity demands that standard connectors simply do not meet. For example, continuous movements across multiple axes cause repetitive stress patterns that can lead to cable failures within months of deployment. Samtec addresses this challenge with discrete wire cable designs incorporating Teflon fluoropolymer construction and specialized outer jackets engineered for extreme flex endurance. Similarly, managing power delivery in space-constrained robotic designs requires innovative approaches to current density and thermal performance.
Samtec’s mPOWER Ultra Micro power connectors. Image source: Samtec
Conclusion
Samtec’s mPOWER Ultra Micro Power Connectors achieve 18 Ampere current handling within a 2.00 mm pitch configuration. In robotics applications where microsecond timing variations can impact surgical outcomes, (e.g., medical systems) Samtec’s Tiger Eye multi-contact design ensures the consistent resistance characteristics for servo control accuracy, while meeting Extended
thermal management. Samtec’s Flyover allows signals to be routed above standard PCB substrates, which reduces dielectric losses and minimizes layer stack complexity. This methodology is ideal in compact controller designs where PCB space constraints impact manufacturing costs and thermal performance. Heat dissipation can also be challenging as robotic systems are integrating more processing power into smaller dimensions. Samtec’s passive cable solutions are designed to minimize thermal stress on system electronics with heat management features that prevent localized hot spots in high- current applications. Their wide operating temperature range from -40 to +85°C allow these products
Samtec’s industrial and robotics interconnect solutions are a focused engineering approach that resolve several automation system connectivity challenges. Their advanced contact mechanics, environmental validation, and high- bandwidth signal integrity helps to meet the demands of robotic applications. Samtec’s focus on longer operational life, durability, and electrical performance consistency offers a good foundation for developing systems that can operate reliably in the harsh conditions where industrial and robotic equipment function. For more information on Samtech’s industrial interconnect solutions, please visit DigiKey.
Image source: Samtec
Life Product standards for sterilization compatibility.
Engineering system-level integration Beyond individual component selection, industrial connectors can benefit from board-level optimizations and enhanced
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A common pain point for designers building robotic systems is combining various hardware modules while figuring out how to make them communicate effectively. The usual piecemeal approach can eat up valuable time and prevent developers from focusing on understanding core concepts behind successful robotic systems. Both professional engineers and robotics enthusiasts encounter these same integration headaches. Think about designing an autonomous floor cleaner or yard maintenance robot. The project requires integrating distance sensors for collision prevention, vision systems for pathfinding, motion sensors for position tracking, motor drivers for locomotion, as well as AI software for intelligent behavior. Each of the components requires specific knowledge, and designing a unified system requires comprehensive architectural knowledge. A complete working robot out of the box The STEVAL-ROBKIT1 (Figure 1) from STMicroelectronics takes a unique approach to deliver a fully functional robotic platform ready for immediate use. Rather than spending time integrating basic hardware, developers can start out with a working robot with autonomous capabilities.
Development teams can benefit from this plug- and-play system for faster prototype creation and proof-of-concept testing.
everything needed for autonomous operation (e.g., drive motors, wheels, vision hardware, and control circuitry) pre-configured and ready to run. The included software offers intelligent navigation features, like boundary detection, collision avoidance, and environmental mapping. Having this working foundation allows developers to head into advanced robotics concepts instead of wrestling with basic setup tasks. Development teams can benefit from this plug-and-play system for faster prototype creation and proof-of-concept testing. Engineers can tweak existing code, integrate additional sensors, or fine-tune control algorithms while building on a stable, proven platform. The system employs a three- board layout that logically divides core robotic operations while preserving system coherence. Central processing is executed on a primary board containing a STM32H725 controller, which also handles sensor fusion, executing intelligent algorithms, managing communications, and directing overall system behavior. Motor control also gets a dedicated board powered by an STM32G071 microcontroller. This modular design ensures the robots maintain
smooth motion control while the main processor handles intensive tasks and highlights an embedded system design where critical, real- time tasks run independently from general processing. Additionally, a specialized imaging module combines Time-of-Flight (ToF) measurement with camera functionality for vision capabilities. This configuration shows how robots can achieve spatial awareness using multiple sensing methods. The design also proves microcontrollers can effectively handle vision tasks without requiring separate application processors.
Advanced sensing and built-in intelligence
STEVAL-ROBKIT1 allows robots to achieve environmental awareness using a ToF distance sensor, which performs range measurements that allow robots to detect obstacles and avoid falls. Developers can study exactly how distance readings convert into navigation decisions and protective behaviors. Visual perception comes from an integrated monochrome camera that works alongside the distance sensor, enabling critical features like object identification,
Building a flexible design for today’s robotic applications
This evaluation kit includes
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Building a flexible design for today’s robotic applications
navigational landmarks. The platform’s inertial measurement capabilities are also applicable for maintaining cleaning patterns and estimating coverage areas. Similarly, autonomous lawn care products can use its navigational foundations to address outdoor challenges. Magnetic field sensing is useful in boundary wire detection and maintaining cutting patterns across sloped surfaces. Though commercial mowers typically operate at power levels higher than the platform, all the basic motor control strategies for load-adaptive speed regulation are directly applicable. Education and entertainment Interactive toy developers can use the STEVAL-ROBKIT1’s accessible hardware interfaces and wireless
connectivity options, such as BLE to create smartphone-controlled experiences where physical robot actions correlate with digital content. Similarly, designers can utilize the platform for educational projects. For example, students can observe relationships between sensor inputs and behavioral outputs to understand how software transforms measurements into purposeful actions. Audio interfaces support voice interaction experiments, while visual indicators can provide feedback during programming exercises.
that power autonomous robots. By removing integration obstacles, developers can now focus on their design rather than dealing with basic technical challenges. This approach speeds up both the learning and product development process. Moreover, the educational benefits go beyond basic component demos to provide practical experience that enables users to develop a solid understanding of how sensors, processors, and actuators work in tandem to create autonomous behaviors. Overall, this solution tackles the complexity that often slows robotic system development. To explore more on this Robotics Eval Platform, please see the video below and visit STEVAL-ROBKIT1.
For sound features, the STEVAL- ROBKIT1 includes both input and output using an onboard microphone and buzzer system. The microphone supports voice commands or sound-based interactions, while the buzzer delivers alerts and status signals. Visual indicators using LEDs or manual controls through buttons can also provide direct feedback and operation modes. For example, LEDs can indicate operational states, sensor status and overall system health, allowing developers to understand robot behavior during testing during development work or regular use. Key applications The STEVAL-ROBKIT1 platform allows developers to explore diverse robotic applications by providing basic building blocks that scale across consumer products, commercial systems, and specialized industrial equipment. Understanding how these core technologies adapt to specific use cases accelerates development from concept to implementation.
waypoint recognition and vision- based navigation. For motion tracking, a 6-axis IMU (Inertial Measurement Unit) monitors orientation and movement. This sensor feeds essential data for navigation accuracy and movement stability. Additionally, an integrated magnetometer adds directional awareness, improving the robot’s ability to maintain course and navigate reliably. STEVAL-ROBKIT1’s software comes with ready-to-use navigation algorithms for converting sensor readings into intelligent movement patterns. Developers can use these algorithms for boundary detection, obstacle navigation, route planning, etc. Machine Learning frameworks built into the system allows users to experiment with AI-driven behaviors or create their own algorithms based on integrated navigation and safety features.
The STEVAL-ROBKIT1 also offers Bluetooth Low Energy connectivity for mobile control and system monitoring via its BlueNRG-M2SA module. BLE allows robots to connect with mobile devices for remote operation and tracking, enabling control beyond the direct visual range. Users can use it to modify the robot’s operational parameters and track performance metrics using mobile interfaces, which improves the overall ease of use.
Expansion and customization options
A 40-pin expansion header matching Raspberry Pi GPIO standards makes it possible to add extra sensors, actuators and custom hardware without needing specialized interface boards. This standardized interface can allow robotics platforms to evolve to meet other needs while preserving core capabilities.
Conclusion
STEVAL-ROBKIT1 offers engineers, students, and hobbyists direct access to the integrated systems
Residential automation systems
Robotic vacuums are some of the most practical use cases for STEVAL-ROBKIT1’s sensing technologies. For example, ToF measurements can accurately calculate distances to walls and furniture, while vision processing identifies docking stations or
Figure 1: The STEVAL-ROBKIT1 from STMicroelectronics. Image source: STMicroelectronics
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Industrial service robotics: smart navigation, safety and control with TE Connectivity’s connector solutions
Industrial service robots (Figure 1) are improving productivity and efficiency in manufacturing, logistics, and automated warehouses in multiple industries. While these robots boast vast networks of sensors, processors, actuators, and communication systems all working together to achieve autonomous operation, a critical, yet often overlooked component is connector solutions that enable them to function in industrial environments. TE Connectivity’s interconnect solutions address the reliability challenges manufacturers face when building industrial service robots as off-the-shelf connectors typically fail to meet requirements for miniaturization, durability, and performance. Enabling autonomous movement and situational awareness Navigation and safety systems in service robots use arrays of sensors like LiDAR, ultrasonic detectors, vision cameras, and inertial measurement units to achieve holistic environmental awareness. A key requirement is for each sensor to continuously generate data streams to be transmitted without loss or corruption to CPU for real-time analysis and decision-making. The ERNI MicroCon ™ Series connector (Figure 2) fully meets the requirements with its industry- leading 0.8 mm pitch and sturdy,
robust construction that allows designers to have the dense sensor integration necessary for environmental monitoring. The miniaturized 0.8 mm pitch spacing delivers space savings compared to 1.27 mm alternatives, which enables robot designers to integrate additional sensors into limited spaces. The MicroCon connector’s dual- beam female contact design provides exceptional reliability for sensor connections via its 1.9 mm wipe length for consistent electrical connectivity under continuous vibrations. Additionally, the wider contact surface in the dual- beam design, helps to minimize contact resistance variations that can potentially introduce noise to sensitive sensor signals. The connectors support data transmission rates of up to 3 Gbit/s, suitable for high-resolution camera systems and advanced LiDAR units that generate massive data volumes. Operating temperature range is from -55 to +125°C ensuring reliable performance whether the robot operates in sub- zero temperature environments or near industrial heat sources. Safety systems in service robots also need fail-safe connectivity to maintain signal integrity under adverse operating conditions. The MicroCon connector’s blind- mate pre- centering capability with ±0.7 mm misalignment tolerance is especially useful in modular robot designs where sensor modules
Figure 2: The ERNI MicroCon series connector Source: TE Connectivity
require frequent replacement for maintenance or reconfiguration.
Central control units: supporting precise command and coordination In the control units of industrial service robots, power distribution efficiency and high-density signal routing capabilities are critical. These systems are responsible for coordinating motor controllers, processing sensor inputs, managing communication interfaces, and maintaining real- time control loops using battery power or industrial power supplies. Entrelec ™ DBL Power Distribution Blocks can be integrated to optimize power management in control units. These blocks utilize a 3-in-1 configuration system that consolidates a single-pole splitter, multi-pole splitter, and grouping configurations into a single product family. With current ratings ranging from 80 A to 550 A, DBL blocks can meet a broad range of power needs of industrial service robots, from
Figure 1: Warehouse robots Source: Adobe Stock
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Industrial service robotics: smart navigation, safety and control with TE Connectivity’s connector solutions
Safety systems in service robots also need fail-safe connectivity to maintain signal integrity under adverse operating conditions.
interference protection in industrial environments where variable frequency drives, welding equipment, and other high-power systems can generate electrical noise that could otherwise corrupt data transmissions. Mini I/O connectors feature a hermaphroditic contact layout with spring action on plug and receptacle sides that provides consistent performance throughout the connector’s lifecycle of 5,000 to 10,000 mating cycles. This durability can be valuable in robots that dock repeatedly for charging or data transfer, as RJ45 connectors typically fail after hundreds of cycles. The 98N cable pull force rating prevents accidental disconnections during robot movement, while the compact form factor enables multiple network interfaces within limited panel space. The Dynamic Mini connector (Figure 5), with a 1.8 mm pitch, is suitable for extremely high-density connections for serial communication buses that link up distributed sensor nodes and actuator controllers. It uses a 3- point contact system with 0.38 μm gold plating which offers low contact resistance over millions of operational cycles. For internal communication between distributed control modules, TE Connectivity’s Dynamic Mini connector family covers 3 A signal connections up to 100 A power links.
Operating specifications from -55°C to 105°C with vibration and shock resistance provide reliable operation throughout the robot’s operational lifetime. Future-ready connectivity for evolving robotics trends As service robots achieve full autonomy with enhanced capabilities and deeper integration with IIoT systems, connectivity will only become more demanding. For example, integrating 5G communication capabilities into industrial robots will require connector solutions capable of supporting the high-frequency signals and antenna connections for wireless operation. Emerging technologies like Single-Pair Ethernet will enhance robot networking by delivering high- speed communications over simplified cabling. TE Connectivity is positioned to support these emerging standards while maintaining backward compatibility with existing protocols. Edge computing implementations that place artificial intelligence processing directly within robots demand exceptional signal integrity for high-speed processor interconnects. The AMPMODU and MicroCon connectors’ time tested performance at multi- gigabit data rates helps ensure readiness for these computational advances. As robots become more intelligent and autonomous, the reliability and performance of their
low-power sensor circuits to high- current motor drives. Moreover, a 1500 VDC capability aligns with the latest high-voltage battery systems/industrial power supplies, while a 100 kA short-circuit rating offers exceptional safety margins to protect sensitive electronics from system faults. For efficient signal distribution within robotic central control units, TE Connectivity offers its AMPMODU ™ family of connectors (Figure 3). These products feature a 0.025” square post design with dual-beam contacts that provide mechanical robustness for connections subjected to heavy vibration while maintaining the electrical performance required for high-speed digital signals.
Operating temperatures from -65° C to +105°C accommodate thermal extremes in industrial facilities without compromising connection integrity. The AMPMODU connectors are offered in pitch options from 1mm to 3.96 mm. High-speed processor interconnects can benefit from the 1mm centerline option with significant space savings compared to 2.54 mm connectors, while power and low-speed control signals can utilize larger pitches for easier assembly and higher current capacity. This flexibility allows control unit designers to optimize board layouts for both electrical performance and manufacturing efficiency.
Figure 5: The Dynamic Mini connector Source: TE Connectivity
Figure 3: AMPMODU family of connectors Source: TE Connectivity
Delivering high-speed, durable connections
interconnection infrastructure becomes even more critical to overall system functionality.
TE Connectivity’s Industrial Mini I/O connectors (Figure 4) address key limitations of RJ45 connectors with unique designs that achieve considerable size reduction while maintaining mechanical and electrical performance. For example, the Mini I/O uses a ‘fighting snake’ contact design with dual contact points that maintain connectivity and redundancy even when subjected to extreme vibration levels up to 50g encountered in mobile robotic applications. With data rates from 10 Mbps to 10 Gbps, the Mini I/O system can be utilized in both legacy fieldbus protocols and newer Time-sensitive Networking (TSN) implementations. Power over Ethernet (PoE) capability can also simplify wiring architectures to further reduce the weight of robots. Moreover, Mini I/O connectors are designed using 360-degree metal shielding for electromagnetic
Conclusion Industrial service robots are some of the most demanding applications for durable
connector technology, combining requirements for miniaturization, durability, signal integrity, and power handling that push traditional solutions beyond their limits. TE Connectivity’s comprehensive portfolio of specialized connectors including the ERNI MicroCon connectors and Entrelec DBL blocks, etc., provide reliable connections in a broad range of robotic applications for multiple industries. For more information on TE Connectivity’s robotics connectivity
Figure 4: TE Connectivity’s Industrial Mini I/O connectors Source: TE Connectivity
solutions, visit DigiKey’s TE Connectivity Robotics page.
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retroelectro
Engineering silence: the telephone and the negative feedback amplifier Written by: David Ray, Cyber City Circuits
altogether, selling Western Electric to Bell Telephone. Western Electric became the manufacturing division of Bell Telephone for the next fifty years, and many of the world’s great innovations came out of the team at Western Electric. The proliferation of telephones throughout the developed parts of this country was very quick. It soon surpassed telegraph line production, and Bell Telephone was at the center of it all. Long-distance phone calls Eventually, phone lines would stretch across the country, including the transcontinental telephone line (1914), which had amplifier stations all along the way. Every ten to twenty miles, there would be a repeater station. As with the transatlantic cable, once
the telephone was used over long distances, new problems began to appear. ■ Signal attenuation – as the electrical signals traveled through the telephone lines, they experienced attenuation, requiring the use of many amplifier stations and, in some cases, manned relay stations ■ Noise from the repeaters – each repeater was designed around high-voltage vacuum tubes, and each one carried with it some intrinsic thermal noise or ‘hiss.’ Each station would amplify the noise from every station before it, and eventually, the noise would rival the intended voice signal, making it unintelligible. The distortion in a string of amplifiers would increase in direct proportion to the number of amplifiers ■ Poor quality telephone lines
The telephone is 150 years old and has undergone many different incarnations. From Elisha Gray’s first version, playing the violin over telegraph lines to modern smartphone computers that no longer need a line to charge. At every step, innovations in the telephone have driven technological advancements. Innovations in transmission lines, switchboards, touch-tone systems, audio filters, FSK modems, and more. Just like when they stretched telegraph lines
across the ocean, pulling telephone lines across the country also led to new and unique problems emerging along the way. This is the story of distortion and noise and how a man named Harold Black solved it. Western Electric and the telephone Elisha Gray first invented the telephone in 1875. His company, Western Electric Manufacturing Company in
Various tunes, including ‘Yankee Doodle’, ‘Robin Adair’, ‘Auld Lang Syne’, and others, were transmitted a mile and heard by a room full of ladies and gentlemen as loudly and tunefully as if they had been in the same room where they were played. These demonstrations were nationwide news. Everyone was excited about the prospect of actual voice communication, but Gray’s telephone could only transmit music from an instrument, like the violin. Alexander Graham Bell, a Scottish immigrant, was a dedicated servant to those who suffered from deafness and hearing loss. He and his engineer, Thomas Watson, worked for months to develop a method for the deaf to communicate using the telegraph or a similar device. Working on this problem, Bell and Watson had developed a way to send a voice message over telegraph wires and files, for which they were granted a patent in March 1876, fifteen months after Gray first demonstrated his telephone. Within a few weeks of applying,
Elisha Gray and his first telephone.
Bell was awarded the patent for the telephone. Around the same time, Gray sold his interest in the Western Electric Manufacturing Company to the telegraph giant, Western Union. Now owning the patent applications and caveats filed by Gray, Western Union sued Bell Telephone over this patent dispute. Western Union lost the lawsuit and, as part of the judgment, was forced to exit the telephone industry Retro Electro fun fact: the official story goes that Gray filed for a patent on his telephone within moments of Bell, but Bell’s application was awarded while Gray’s was not because Bell’s was earlier in the day. Newspapers would allege, a decade later, that Bell bribed the patent examiner, Mr. Wilber, with a $100 bill (half of a month’s pay for an examiner) for his ‘favoritism’ in this matter.
Chicago, had worked in the telegraph industry for years, manufacturing all kinds of equipment. Gray retired from his administrative duties at Western Electric the year before to focus on his own research. He began holding demonstrations in January 1875.
Alexander Graham Bell (Left) with his engineer Thomas Watson (Right).
Harold S Black while testing his new system in 1930.
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retroelectro
– while every effort would be made to make the best cable,
audio quality had to be amplified with the intended signal.
transcontinental telephone line. This is a problem they had already been trying to solve for nearly a decade when he joined. In an interview, he tells the secret of his success at Western Electric. Frustrated after being passed over for a raise following his first three months at West Street Labs, Harold
Black briefly considered quitting, only to decide the next morning that “I am going to go to work and learn everything that I can about the business.” He realized that everything an engineer did had to be documented in a memorandum, and all of those were archived.
visit the archive with a special pass from the guards. He methodically read the firm’s archival memoranda, dating back to his birth year, 1898, absorbing technical reports and organizational histories that spanned all twelve floors of 463 West Street. While smoking in the archives was not permitted for obvious reasons, he would repeatedly get caught smoking his pipe while reading. After being written up for it four times by the guards, he was allowed to spend his time reading in one of the higher supervisors’ offices, where smoking was permitted. This gave him additional access to a wide range of new information. The problem of developing a perfect amplifier In 1921, the new goal was to make transcontinental telephony practical. The first transcontinental telephone call was made in January 1915, which included President Woodrow Wilson. The quality of this call was terrible by any measure. The attenuation over the thousands of miles of copper forced each side to yell into the microphone, in hopes that it would make it through to the other side. The voices were described as hollow and ‘metallic.’ The higher frequencies in the voice were lost. There was a significant delay and echo, making the conversation difficult and disjointed. The many repeaters between the participants amplified all of the noise and distortion
transmission line theory was still poorly understood. Quality was all over the place ■ Impedance mismatch – inconsistent quality caused signal reflections, propagation delays, and a noticeable echo. Stations attempted to remedy this by using long adjustable coils to help balance the lines. An operator had to monitor the resistance on the lines and adjust the coil and the amplifier’s gain accordingly ■ Environmental noise – in addition to thermal noise and the vacuum tube ‘hiss,’ weather conditions significantly affected phone signal quality. Lightning strikes would produce loud bursts of noise, which would be amplified through the repeater stations. Ice buildup on the lines would consistently disrupt the impedance, requiring continuous adjustment of loading coils
Harold S. Black Harold Stephen Black was born on April 14, 1898. His father worked at a ‘shirt shop’ and had an eighth- grade education. His mother was a Stenographer. As a teenager, he bought a series of books on the subject of electricity. The Hawkins Electrical Guide, published between 1914 and 1917 by Nehemiah Hawkins, was a comprehensive and accessible series of small volumes designed to teach readers about electricity and its practical applications. Spanning numerous concise books, the guide covered a wide range of electrical topics, from basic principles of electricity, wiring, lighting, and circuits to detailed explanations of electric motors, generators, batteries, telegraphy, telephony, and electrical measurement instruments. Each volume was full of diagrams and technical drawings, making complex concepts understandable to many people, including teenage hobbyists of the day, like Harold Black. Starting in 1914, with these books, he started gathering ‘electrical things’ from the local town dump in the attic of the house they were renting. He tells of when he was 16, he built a microphone out of some scrap wood and some carbon that he pulled out of an old battery. He ran wires across the street to the
To that end, each Sunday, he would
The Hawkins Electrical Guide series of books was very influential to engineers and hobbyists of the day.
neighbor’s house, and he said that he could hear everything in their house, even the ticking of a watch. Soon, the father came home and saw it, ripping it out of the window and destroying the microphone. His first telecommunications system didn’t last very long. Joining Western Electric After high school, he attended Worcester Polytechnic Institute (WPI), where he earned a degree in electrical engineering in 1921. Western Electric’s Systems Engineering Laboratory at 463 West Street, New York, soon hired him, starting at $32 a week. He was assigned to a team that was trying to solve issues surrounding long-distance calling and the
…and every imperfection in the
Retro Electro fun fact: as this is going on, at the same time Frank J Sprague was perfecting is electric traction motor, bringing electric mass transportation to reality. Learn more in the Retro Electro article, Frank J Sprague and the Richmond Union Passenger Railway. (Link: https://emedia.digikey. com/view/251481832/17/)
The offices at 463 West Street in New York City.
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along the way. Every time someone spoke, there was a rise and fall in background static, so bad it was described as “like a distant train whistle over a stormy sea.” The repeater amplifier problem was considered unsolvable to everyone because nobody knew how to make the amplifier linear or stable enough. For years, the only
near a guitar amplifier. Quickly, the signal will ‘self-oscillate’ and it will start wailing a high-frequency ear- bursting whine. This skepticism of the concept would follow him for the next several years.
Retro Electro fun fact: while the reader can find ‘AA,’ ‘C,’ and ‘D’ batteries at the local hardware store, ‘A’ and ‘B’ batteries are absent. ‘B’ batteries were used in early vacuum tube equipment to provide a plate voltage of up to ninety volts, while an ‘A’ battery was used to supply high current to heat the filaments in the tubes.
Retro Electro fun fact: this is the underlying concept that makes modern operational amplifiers (Op-Amps) work.
of the ‘B’ battery. Ultimately, these solutions were too complicated and complex to be practical.
approach to a solution was to try to make a perfect ‘linear’ vacuum tube. All this research later proved that it is impossible.
First principles After working on this problem for over a year, Black was plainly stumped. The unsolvable problem. Then, in March of 1923, Black attended a lecture by mathematician and electrical engineer Charles Steinmetz. Black arrived early to get a seat in the front row. Steinmetz arrived 20 minutes late, walking down the aisle with enormous applause and an even larger cigar hanging out of his mouth. Black recounts this lecture by saying that “ I no longer remember the subject, but I do remember the clarity and logic of his presentation and how quickly and directly he reached the final conclusion of his talk.” Black was so impressed by this approach that he went home and restated his amplifier in a new way. Removing all of the superfluous requirements of gain and distortion rejection. He framed his new problem simply as “remove all distortion products from the amplifier output.” The amplifier output consisted of two different parts: the wanted signal or intelligence and the unwanted distortion. Anything that was not part of the desired signal was now considered distortion. Now
Within a few weeks. He had a working model that gave a
reduction in distortion of 100,000 to 1 in a single amplifier module, finally solving the task he had been assigned six years earlier. These results were quickly signed and sent off to Bell Labs’ patent lawyer, Harry A. Burgess. In January 1928, Bell Labs began developing a new system for transcontinental cables. This became the first application of the invention. Each amplifier was The Negative Feedback Amplifier works by feeding the output through a ‘feedback circuit’ back into the input of the amplifier.
In a flash Then, after four years of trial and error, while riding the ferry to the city from his home in New Jersey, it came to him ‘in a flash.’ He realized that if he fed the amplifier output back into the input, but 180 degrees out of phase, he would have what he had been wanting. “A means to cancel out the distortion in the output.” He took what paper he had with him, that day’s copy of the New York Times, and scrawled out the diagrams and formulas needed for the negative feedback amplifier. As soon as the ferry stopped, he ran to the West
The newspaper that Black wrote out the solution he received ‘in a flash’
to “isolate and then eliminate this distortion.” He now considered that if he reduced an amplified output signal from an amplifier to the same amplitude as the input signal and then subtracted the input signal from the adjusted output, the only thing that would remain would be the distortion from the amplifier. He could take this distortion, using a separate amplifier, amplify it, then subtract it from the original amplifier output, thereby relieving the system of the distortion. Surely this felt like the perfect solution at the time, but it was still far from it. He designed a ‘feed-forward amplifier’ with this solution, but every hour, twenty-four hours a day, a technician had to make adjustments to the vacuum tube’s current. Then, four times a day, someone had to adjust the voltages
Street Labs (by then renamed to Bell Labs) and had it witnessed by Earl C. Blessing. Few people had faith that it could work. Feeding the output of an amplifier back into the input just sounds like loud noise. Consider what happens when a microphone is placed
Charles Steinmetz (Right) and Albert Einstein (Left) in 1921
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